header and the velocity of steam leaving the boiler are, therefore, important elements in boiler design. As the rate of steam production goes up, so does the tendency for steam contamination. The sudden opening of a steam valve or the cutting in of a boiler too quickly speeds up the production of steam, which can cause violent bubbling and carryover.

The primary chemical causes of carryover are high concentrations of totally dissolved and suspended solids in the boiler water, excessive alkalinity, and the presence of oil.

Foaming is the production of froth or unbroken bubbles on the surface of the boiler water. The froth may be thin, with few bubbles overlying each other, or it may build up through- out the steam space. Under such conditions it is difficult to free the steam of the liquid films, and the moisture content increases. When certain substances are dissolved in water, they concentrate somewhat more in the body of the liquid than on the surface; others concentrate more on the surface than in the body. In either case, the surface tension of the water is affected, and bubble film develops. The formation of froth depends upon the tenacity of the films of liquid that form the shells of the bubbles. A tough film can develop that refuses to break and release the steam. Apparently, finely divided solids in suspension increase the stability of the film so that the combination of salts in solution and finely divided solids cause foaming to develop more readily than when either one is present by itself. Soaps getting into the boiler from outside sources or formed within the boiler from oils or animal greases intensify the foaming action. Water can be carried over in the steam without formation of froth. When a pure water that does not foam is boiled, it frequently "bumps" as unstable steam bubbles are formed. These rapidly reach the surface of the water and instantaneously burst through. Parts of the water tend to become superheated and suddenly turn to steam. Fine solid particles released in water under these conditions cause the immediate production of much steam. This may occur in a boiler when particles of scale suddenly become loose.

When a boiler is foaming or priming, it is difficult and quite often impossible to read the true level of the boiler water on the gauge glass. The slugs of boiler water can wreck turbines or engines. The carryover of boiler water solids, usually caused by foaming and priming, disrupts operation of the equipment coming in contact with the steam, Deposits form in steam piping, valves, superheaters, engines, or turbines. These solids erode the turbine blades and frequently create out-of-balance conditions to the rotor. They often clog tubing, a pipe, and other apparatus following the boiler. When live steam is used for processing purposes or for cooking, the solids can seriously damage the final product. Remember also, any moisture carryover with the steam is an additional heat loss through the steam line.

Prevention and Treatment for Carryover-Foaming and Priming

There are two kinds of solids present in most boiler water-the dissolved solids, or substances that are in solution, and suspended solids. Suspended solids are finely divided solid particles floating around in the water. This is material left over after the scale-forming and corrosive salts have been changed into sludge by chemical treatment.

When a boiler is steaming, the feedwater continuously carries dissolved mineral matter into the boiler. However, the steam leaving the boiler carries very little mineral matter with it. The concentration of dissolved solids in the boiler water, therefore, keeps building up unless properly controlled by continuous or intermittent blowdown.

In water tube boilers, concentrations are generally highest at the place where (he mixture of steam and water from the tubes spills over into the steam drum. Where total concentrations are not reduced sufficiently by the bottom blow, another blowdown line should be installed to remove water from the drum at the point where TDS (total dissolved solids) concentrations are the highest. This blowdown is generally operated continuously when the boiler is in service and is called a continuous blowdown.

The best remedy for foaming and priming carryover is the proper blowdown of TDS. The continuous blowdown should be regulated to maintain the TDS at 3,000 to 4,000 ppm. The greater the TDS that can be carried without trouble, the less water, fuel, and chemicals required or wasted in the TDS blowdown.

CHEMICAL TREATMENT DETERMINATION

Because raw water conditions vary so greatly with locale, it is impossible to recommend a single, specific water treatment. Whenever possible, a